From: Chris Barker <barker@kappa.linguistics.fas.nyu.edu>
Date: Mon, 1 Nov 2010 14:00:00 +0000 (-0400)
Subject: edits
X-Git-Url: http://lambda.jimpryor.net/git/gitweb.cgi?p=lambda.git;a=commitdiff_plain;h=386b3d90a12ae3c787bd6620194e6fe736cf8e0e

edits
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diff --git a/week7.mdwn b/week7.mdwn
index 2abf10d7..af8c17e5 100644
--- a/week7.mdwn
+++ b/week7.mdwn
@@ -1,8 +1,159 @@
 [[!toc]]
 
 
-Monads
-------
+Towards Monads: Safe division
+-----------------------------
+
+Integer division presupposes that its second argument
+(the divisor) is not zero, upon pain of presupposition failure.
+Here's what my OCaml interpreter says:
+
+    # 12/0;;
+    Exception: Division_by_zero.
+
+So we want to explicitly allow for the possibility that
+division will return something other than a number.
+We'll use OCaml's `option` type, which works like this:
+
+    # type 'a option = None | Some of 'a;;
+    # None;;
+    - : 'a option = None
+    # Some 3;;
+    - : int option = Some 3
+
+So if a division is normal, we return some number, but if the divisor is
+zero, we return `None`. As a mnemonic aid, we'll append a `'` to the end of our new divide function.
+
+<pre>
+let div' (x:int) (y:int) =
+  match y with
+	  0 -> None
+    | _ -> Some (x / y);;
+
+(*
+val div' : int -> int -> int option = fun
+# div' 12 2;;
+- : int option = Some 6
+# div' 12 0;;
+- : int option = None
+# div' (div' 12 2) 3;;
+Characters 4-14:
+  div' (div' 12 2) 3;;
+        ^^^^^^^^^^
+Error: This expression has type int option
+       but an expression was expected of type int
+*)
+</pre>
+
+This starts off well: dividing 12 by 2, no problem; dividing 12 by 0,
+just the behavior we were hoping for.  But we want to be able to use
+the output of the safe-division function as input for further division
+operations.  So we have to jack up the types of the inputs:
+
+<pre>
+let div' (u:int option) (v:int option) =
+  match v with
+	  None -> None
+    | Some 0 -> None
+	| Some y -> (match u with
+					  None -> None
+                    | Some x -> Some (x / y));;
+
+(*
+val div' : int option -> int option -> int option = <fun>
+# div' (Some 12) (Some 2);;
+- : int option = Some 6
+# div' (Some 12) (Some 0);;
+- : int option = None
+# div' (div' (Some 12) (Some 0)) (Some 3);;
+- : int option = None
+*)
+</pre>
+
+Beautiful, just what we need: now we can try to divide by anything we
+want, without fear that we're going to trigger any system errors.
+
+I prefer to line up the `match` alternatives by using OCaml's
+built-in tuple type:
+
+<pre>
+let div' (u:int option) (v:int option) =
+  match (u, v) with
+	  (None, _) -> None
+    | (_, None) -> None
+    | (_, Some 0) -> None
+	| (Some x, Some y) -> Some (x / y);;
+</pre>
+
+So far so good.  But what if we want to combine division with
+other arithmetic operations?  We need to make those other operations
+aware of the possibility that one of their arguments has triggered a
+presupposition failure:
+
+<pre>
+let add' (u:int option) (v:int option) =
+  match (u, v) with
+	  (None, _) -> None
+    | (_, None) -> None
+    | (Some x, Some y) -> Some (x + y);;
+
+(*
+val add' : int option -> int option -> int option = <fun>
+# add' (Some 12) (Some 4);;
+- : int option = Some 16
+# add' (div' (Some 12) (Some 0)) (Some 4);;
+- : int option = None
+*)
+</pre>
+
+This works, but is somewhat disappointing: the `add'` operation
+doesn't trigger any presupposition of its own, so it is a shame that
+it needs to be adjusted because someone else might make trouble.
+
+But we can automate the adjustment.  The standard way in OCaml,
+Haskell, etc., is to define a `bind` operator (the name `bind` is not
+well chosen to resonate with linguists, but what can you do). To continue our mnemonic association, we'll put a `'` after the name "bind" as well.
+
+<pre>
+let bind' (u: int option) (f: int -> (int option)) =
+  match u with
+	  None -> None
+    | Some x -> f x;;
+
+let add' (u: int option) (v: int option)  =
+  bind' u (fun x -> bind' v (fun y -> Some (x + y)));;
+
+let div' (u: int option) (v: int option) =
+  bind' u (fun x -> bind' v (fun y -> if (0 = y) then None else Some (x / y)));;
+
+(*
+#  div' (div' (Some 12) (Some 2)) (Some 3);;
+- : int option = Some 2
+#  div' (div' (Some 12) (Some 0)) (Some 3);;
+- : int option = None
+# add' (div' (Some 12) (Some 0)) (Some 3);;
+- : int option = None
+*)
+</pre>
+
+Compare the new definitions of `add'` and `div'` closely: the definition
+for `add'` shows what it looks like to equip an ordinary operation to
+survive in dangerous presupposition-filled world.  Note that the new
+definition of `add'` does not need to test whether its arguments are
+None objects or real numbers---those details are hidden inside of the
+`bind'` function.
+
+The definition of `div'` shows exactly what extra needs to be said in
+order to trigger the no-division-by-zero presupposition.
+
+For linguists: this is a complete theory of a particularly simply form
+of presupposition projection (every predicate is a hole).
+
+
+
+
+Monads in General
+-----------------
 
 Start by (re)reading the discussion of monads in the lecture notes for
 week 6 [[Towards Monads]].