X-Git-Url: http://lambda.jimpryor.net/git/gitweb.cgi?p=lambda.git;a=blobdiff_plain;f=advanced_topics%2Fmonads_in_category_theory.mdwn;h=173e9868c1c52585eaa0c06a40696316121c3a88;hp=56c897a6b11dbad51d410319831975ecba0e421a;hb=57439ef74347e5ca607d9b717f20e888f879ef87;hpb=ac1f590813b0da4eb32727b544c5be957cb79fe9 diff --git a/advanced_topics/monads_in_category_theory.mdwn b/advanced_topics/monads_in_category_theory.mdwn index 56c897a6..173e9868 100644 --- a/advanced_topics/monads_in_category_theory.mdwn +++ b/advanced_topics/monads_in_category_theory.mdwn @@ -1,9 +1,26 @@ +**Don't try to read this yet!!! Many substantial edits are still in process. +Will be ready soon.** + +Caveats +------- +I really don't know much category theory. Just enough to put this +together. Also, this really is "put together." I haven't yet found an +authoritative source (that's accessible to a category theory beginner like +myself) that discusses the correspondence between the category-theoretic and +functional programming uses of these notions in enough detail to be sure that +none of the pieces here is misguided. In particular, it wasn't completely +obvious how to map the polymorphism on the programming theory side into the +category theory. And I'm bothered by the fact that our `<=<` operation is only +partly defined on our domain of natural transformations. But this does seem to +me to be the reasonable way to put the pieces together. We very much welcome +feedback from anyone who understands these issues better, and will make +corrections. + + +Monoids +------- +A **monoid** is a structure `(S, *, z)` consisting of an associative binary operation `*` over some set `S`, which is closed under `*`, and which contains an identity element `z` for `*`. That is: -**Don't try to read this yet!!! Many substantial edits are still in process. Will be ready soon.** - -1. Monoids ----------- -A is a structure consisting of an associative binary operation * over some set S, which is closed under *, and which contains an identity element z for *. That is: for all s1,s2,s3 in S: (i) s1*s2 etc are also in S (ii) (s1*s2)*s3 = s1*(s2*s3) @@ -11,115 +28,114 @@ A is a structure consisting of an associative binary operation * over s Some examples of monoids are: - (a) finite strings of an alphabet A, with * being concatenation and z being the empty string - - (b) all functions X->X over a set X, with * being composition and z being the identity function over X - - (c) the natural numbers with * being plus and z being 0 (in particular, this is a ). If we use the integers, or the naturals mod n, instead of the naturals, then every element will have an inverse and so we have not merely a monoid but a .) +* finite strings of an alphabet `A`, with `*` being concatenation and `z` being the empty string +* all functions `X->X` over a set `X`, with `*` being composition and `z` being the identity function over `X` +* the natural numbers with `*` being plus and `z` being `0` (in particular, this is a **commutative monoid**). If we use the integers, or the naturals mod n, instead of the naturals, then every element will have an inverse and so we have not merely a monoid but a **group**.) +* if we let `*` be multiplication and `z` be `1`, we get different monoids over the same sets as in the previous item. - (d) the natural numbers with * being multiplication and z being 1 constitute a different monoid over the same set as in (c). - - - -2. Categories -------------- -A is a generalization of a monoid. A category consists of a class of elements, and a class of between those elements. Morphisms are sometimes also called maps or arrows. They are something like functions (and as we'll see below, given a set of functions they'll determine a category). However, a given morphism only maps between a single source element and a single target element. Also, there can be multiple distinct morphisms between the same source and target, so the identity of a morphism goes beyond its "extension." +Categories +---------- +A **category** is a generalization of a monoid. A category consists of a class of **elements**, and a class of **morphisms** between those elements. Morphisms are sometimes also called maps or arrows. They are something like functions (and as we'll see below, given a set of functions they'll determine a category). However, a single morphism only maps between a single source element and a single target element. Also, there can be multiple distinct morphisms between the same source and target, so the identity of a morphism goes beyond its "extension." -When a morphism f in category C has source c1 and target c2, we'll write f:c1->c2. +When a morphism `f` in category `C` has source `c1` and target `c2`, we'll write `f:c1->c2`. To have a category, the elements and morphisms have to satisfy some constraints: + (i) the class of morphisms has to be closed under composition: where f:c1->c2 and g:c2->c3, g o f is also a morphism of the category, which maps c1->c3. (ii) composition of morphisms has to be associative - (iii) every element e of the category has to have an identity morphism id[e], which is such that for every morphism f:a->b: - id[b] o f = f = f o id[a] + (iii) every element e of the category has to have an identity morphism id[e], which is such that for every morphism f:c1->c2: id[c2] o f = f = f o id[c1] + +These parallel the constraints for monoids. Note that there can be multiple distinct morphisms between an element `e` and itself; they need not all be identity morphisms. Indeed from (iii) it follows that each element can have only a single identity morphism. -These parallel the constraints for monoids. Note that there can be multiple distinct morphisms between an element e and itself; they need not all be identity morphisms. Indeed from (iii) it follows that each element can have only a single identity morphism. +A good intuitive picture of a category is as a generalized directed graph, where the category elements are the graph's nodes, and there can be multiple directed edges between a given pair of nodes, and nodes can also have multiple directed edges to themselves. (Every node must have at least one such, which is that node's identity morphism.) Some examples of categories are: - (a) any category whose elements are sets and whose morphisms are functions between those sets. Here the source and target of a function are its domain and range, so distinct functions sharing a domain and range (e.g., sin and cos) are distinct morphisms between the same source and target elements. The identity morphism for any element is the identity function over that set. +* Categories whose elements are sets and whose morphisms are functions between those sets. Here the source and target of a function are its domain and range, so distinct functions sharing a domain and range (e.g., sin and cos) are distinct morphisms between the same source and target elements. The identity morphism for any element/set is just the identity function for that set. + +* any monoid `(S,*,z)` generates a category with a single element `x`; this `x` need not have any relation to `S`. The members of `S` play the role of *morphisms* of this category, rather than its elements. All of these morphisms are understood to map `x` to itself. The result of composing the morphism consisting of `s1` with the morphism `s2` is the morphism `s3`, where `s3=s1*s2`. The identity morphism for the (single) category element `x` is the monoid's identity `z`. + +* a **preorder** is a structure `(S, <=)` consisting of a reflexive, transitive, binary relation on a set `S`. It need not be connected (that is, there may be members `x`,`y` of `S` such that neither `x<=y` nor `y<=x`). It need not be anti-symmetric (that is, there may be members `s1`,`s2` of `S` such that `s1<=s2` and `s2<=s1` but `s1` and `s2` are not identical). Some examples: - (b) any monoid (S,*,z) generates a category with a single element x; this x need not have any relation to S. The members of S play the role of *morphisms* of this category, rather than its elements. The result of composing the morphism consisting of s1 with the morphism s2 is the morphism s3, where s3=s1+s2. The identity morphism on the (single) category element x is the monoid's identity z. + * sentences ordered by logical implication ("p and p" implies and is implied by "p", but these sentences are not identical; so this illustrates a pre-order without anti-symmetry) + * sets ordered by size (this illustrates it too) - (c) a <= is a binary relation on a set S which is reflexive and transitive. It need not be connected (that is, there may be members x,y of S such that neither x<=y nor y<=x). It need not be anti-symmetric (that is, there may be members s1,s2 of S such that s1<=s2 and s2<=s1 but s1 and s2 are not identical). - Some examples: - * sentences ordered by logical implication ("p and p" implies and is implied by "p", but these sentences are not identical). - * sets ordered by size - Any pre-order (S,<=) generates a category whose elements are the members of S and which has only a single morphism between any two elements s1 and s2, iff s1<=s2. + Any pre-order `(S,<=)` generates a category whose elements are the members of `S` and which has only a single morphism between any two elements `s1` and `s2`, iff `s1<=s2`. +Functors +-------- +A **functor** is a "homomorphism", that is, a structure-preserving mapping, between categories. In particular, a functor `F` from category `C` to category `D` must: -3. Functors ------------ -A is a "homomorphism", that is, a structure-preserving mapping, between categories. In particular, a functor F from category C to category D must: (i) associate with every element c1 of C an element F(c1) of D (ii) associate with every morphism f:c1->c2 of C a morphism F(f):F(c1)->F(c2) of D - (iii) "preserve identity", that is, for every element c1 of C: F of c1's identity morphism in C must be the identity morphism of F(c1) in D: - F(id[c1]) = id[F(c1)]. - (iv) "distribute over composition", that is for any morphisms f and g in C: - F(g o f) = F(g) o F(f) + (iii) "preserve identity", that is, for every element c1 of C: F of c1's identity morphism in C must be the identity morphism of F(c1) in D: F(id[c1]) = id[F(c1)]. + (iv) "distribute over composition", that is for any morphisms f and g in C: F(g o f) = F(g) o F(f) -A functor that maps a category to itself is called an . The (endo)functor that maps every element and morphism of C to itself is denoted 1C. +A functor that maps a category to itself is called an **endofunctor**. The (endo)functor that maps every element and morphism of `C` to itself is denoted `1C`. -How functors compose: -If F is a functor from category C to category D, and H is a functor from category D to category E, then HF is a functor which maps every element c1 of C to element H(F(c1)) of E, and maps every morphism f of C to morphism H(F(f)) of E. +How functors compose: If `G` is a functor from category `C` to category `D`, and `K` is a functor from category `D` to category `E`, then `KG` is a functor which maps every element `c1` of `C` to element `K(G(c1))` of `E`, and maps every morphism `f` of `C` to morphism `K(G(f))` of `E`. I'll assert without proving that functor composition is associative. -4. Natural Transformation -------------------------- -So categories include elements and morphisms. Functors consist of mappings from the elements and morphisms of one category to those of another (or the same) category. are a third level of mappings, from one functor to another. +Natural Transformation +---------------------- +So categories include elements and morphisms. Functors consist of mappings from the elements and morphisms of one category to those of another (or the same) category. **Natural transformations** are a third level of mappings, from one functor to another. -Where G and H are functors from category C to category D, a natural transformation eta between G and H is a family of morphisms eta[c1]:G(c1)->H(c1) in D for each element c1 of C. That is, eta[c1] has as source c1's image under G in D, and as target c1's image under H in D. The morphisms in this family must also satisfy the constraint: - for every morphism f:c1->c2 in C: - eta[c2] o G(f) = H(f) o eta[c1] +Where `G` and `H` are functors from category `C` to category `D`, a natural transformation `eta` between `G` and `H` is a family of morphisms `eta[c1]:G(c1)->H(c1)` in `D` for each element `c1` of `C`. That is, `eta[c1]` has as source `c1`'s image under `G` in `D`, and as target `c1`'s image under `H` in `D`. The morphisms in this family must also satisfy the constraint: -That is, the morphism via G(f) from G(c1) to G(c2), and then via eta[c2] to H(c2), is identical to the morphism from G(c1) via eta[c1] to H(c1), and then via H(f) from H(c1) to H(c2). + for every morphism f:c1->c2 in C: eta[c2] o G(f) = H(f) o eta[c1] + +That is, the morphism via `G(f)` from `G(c1)` to `G(c2)`, and then via `eta[c2]` to `H(c2)`, is identical to the morphism from `G(c1)` via `eta[c1]` to `H(c1)`, and then via `H(f)` from `H(c1)` to `H(c2)`. How natural transformations compose: -Consider four categories B,C,D, and E. -Let F be a functor from B to C; G,H, and J be functors from C to D; and K and L be functors from D to E. Let eta be a natural transformation from G to H; phi be a natural transformation from H to J; and psi be a natural transformation from K to L. Pictorally: +Consider four categories `B`, `C`, `D`, and `E`. Let `F` be a functor from `B` to `C`; `G`, `H`, and `J` be functors from `C` to `D`; and `K` and `L` be functors from `D` to `E`. Let `eta` be a natural transformation from `G` to `H`; `phi` be a natural transformation from `H` to `J`; and `psi` be a natural transformation from `K` to `L`. Pictorally: + + - B -+ +--- C --+ +---- D -----+ +-- E -- + | | | | | | + F: ------> G: ------> K: ------> + | | | | | eta | | | psi + | | | | v | | v + | | H: ------> L: ------> + | | | | | phi | | + | | | | v | | + | | J: ------> | | + -----+ +--------+ +------------+ +------- -- B -+ +--- C --+ +---- D -----+ +-- E -- - | | | | | | - F: ------> G: ------> K: ------> - | | | | | eta | | | psi - | | | | v | | v - | | H: ------> L: ------> - | | | | | phi | | - | | | | v | | - | | J: ------> | | ------+ +--------+ +------------+ +------- +Then `(eta F)` is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor `GF` to the composite functor `HF`, such that where `b1` is an element of category `B`, `(eta F)[b1] = eta[F(b1)]`---that is, the morphism in `D` that `eta` assigns to the element `F(b1)` of `C`. -(eta F) is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor GF to the composite functor HF, such that where b1 is an element of category B, (eta F)[b1] = eta[F(b1)]---that is, the morphism in D that eta assigns to the element F(b1) of C. +And `(K eta)` is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor `KG` to the (composite) functor `KH`, such that where `c1` is an element of category `C`, `(K eta)[c1] = K(eta[c1])`---that is, the morphism in `E` that `K` assigns to the morphism `eta[c1]` of `D`. -(K eta) is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor KG to the (composite) functor KH, such that where c1 is an element of category C, (K eta)[c1] = K(eta[c1])---that is, the morphism in E that K assigns to the morphism eta[c1] of D. +`(phi -v- eta)` is a natural transformation from `G` to `J`; this is known as a "vertical composition". We will rely later on this, where `f:c1->c2`: -(phi -v- eta) is a natural transformation from G to J; this is known as a "vertical composition". We will rely later on this: phi[c2] o H(f) o eta[c1] = phi[c2] o H(f) o eta[c1] - ------------- - by naturalness of phi, is: - -------------- + +by naturalness of phi, is: + phi[c2] o H(f) o eta[c1] = J(f) o phi[c1] o eta[c1] - -------------- - by naturalness of eta, is: - -------------- + +by naturalness of eta, is: + phi[c2] o eta[c2] o G(f) = J(f) o phi[c1] o eta[c1] - ----------------- ----------------- -Hence, we can define (phi -v- eta)[c1] as: phi[c1] o eta[c1] and rely on it to satisfy the constraints for a natural transformation from G to J: - ----------------- ----------------- + +Hence, we can define `(phi -v- eta)[x]` as: `phi[x] o eta[x]` and rely on it to satisfy the constraints for a natural transformation from `G` to `J`: + (phi -v- eta)[c2] o G(f) = J(f) o (phi -v- eta)[c1] +An observation we'll rely on later: given the definitions of vertical composition and of how natural transformations compose with functors, it follows that: + + ((phi -v- eta) F) = ((phi F) -v- (eta F)) + I'll assert without proving that vertical composition is associative and has an identity, which we'll call "the identity transformation." -(psi -h- eta) is natural transformation from the (composite) functor KG to the (composite) functor LH; this is known as a "horizontal composition." It's trickier to define, but we won't be using it here. For reference: +`(psi -h- eta)` is natural transformation from the (composite) functor `KG` to the (composite) functor `LH`; this is known as a "horizontal composition." It's trickier to define, but we won't be using it here. For reference: (phi -h- eta)[c1] = L(eta[c1]) o psi[G(c1)] = psi[H(c1)] o K(eta[c1]) @@ -128,47 +144,71 @@ Horizontal composition is also associative, and has the same identity as vertica -5. Monads ---------- +Monads +------ In earlier days, these were also called "triples." -A is a structure consisting of an (endo)functor M from some category C to itself, along with some natural transformations, which we'll specify in a moment. +A **monad** is a structure consisting of an (endo)functor `M` from some category `C` to itself, along with some natural transformations, which we'll specify in a moment. -Let T be a set of natural transformations p, each being between some (variable) functor P and another functor which is the composite MP' of M and a (variable) functor P'. That is, for each element c1 in C, p assigns c1 a morphism from element P(c1) to element MP'(c1), satisfying the constraints detailed in the previous section. For different members of T, the relevant functors may differ; that is, p is a transformation from functor P to MP', q is a transformation from functor Q to MQ', and none of P,P',Q,Q' need be the same. +Let `T` be a set of natural transformations `p`, each being between some (variable) functor `P` and another functor which is the composite `MP'` of `M` and a (variable) functor `P'`. That is, for each element `c1` in `C`, `p` assigns `c1` a morphism from element `P(c1)` to element `MP'(c1)`, satisfying the constraints detailed in the previous section. For different members of `T`, the relevant functors may differ; that is, `p` is a transformation from functor `P` to `MP'`, `q` is a transformation from functor `Q` to `MQ'`, and none of `P`, `P'`, `Q`, `Q'` need be the same. -One of the members of T will be designated the "unit" transformation for M, and it will be a transformation from the identity functor 1C on C to M(1C). So it will assign to c1 a morphism from c1 to M(c1). +One of the members of `T` will be designated the "unit" transformation for `M`, and it will be a transformation from the identity functor `1C` for `C` to `M(1C)`. So it will assign to `c1` a morphism from `c1` to `M(c1)`. -We also need to designate for M a "join" transformation, which is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor MM to M. +We also need to designate for `M` a "join" transformation, which is a natural transformation from the (composite) functor `MM` to `M`. These two natural transformations have to satisfy some constraints ("the monad laws") which are most easily stated if we can introduce a defined notion. -Let p and q be members of T, that is they are natural transformations from P to MP' and from Q to MQ', respectively. Let them be such that P' = Q. Now (M q) will also be a natural transformation, formed by composing the functor M with the natural transformation q. Similarly, (join Q') will be a natural transformation, formed by composing the natural transformation join with the functor Q'; it will transform the functor MMQ' to the functor MQ'. Now take the vertical composition of the three natural transformations (join Q'), (M q), and p, and abbreviate it as follows: +Let `p` and `q` be members of `T`, that is they are natural transformations from `P` to `MP'` and from `Q` to `MQ'`, respectively. Let them be such that `P' = Q`. Now `(M q)` will also be a natural transformation, formed by composing the functor `M` with the natural transformation `q`. Similarly, `(join Q')` will be a natural transformation, formed by composing the natural transformation `join` with the functor `Q'`; it will transform the functor `MMQ'` to the functor `MQ'`. Now take the vertical composition of the three natural transformations `(join Q')`, `(M q)`, and `p`, and abbreviate it as follows: - q <=< p =def. ((join Q') -v- (M q) -v- p) --- since composition is associative I don't specify the order of composition on the rhs + q <=< p =def. ((join Q') -v- (M q) -v- p) -In other words, <=< is a binary operator that takes us from two members p and q of T to a composite natural transformation. (In functional programming, at least, this is called the "Kleisli composition operator". Sometimes its written p >=> q where that's the same as q <=< p.) +Since composition is associative I don't specify the order of composition on the rhs. -p is a transformation from P to MP' which = MQ; (M q) is a transformation from MQ to MMQ'; and (join Q') is a transformation from MMQ' to MQ'. So the composite q <=< p will be a transformation from P to MQ', and so also eligible to be a member of T. +In other words, `<=<` is a binary operator that takes us from two members `p` and `q` of `T` to a composite natural transformation. (In functional programming, at least, this is called the "Kleisli composition operator". Sometimes its written `p >=> q` where that's the same as `q <=< p`.) + +`p` is a transformation from `P` to `MP'` which = `MQ`; `(M q)` is a transformation from `MQ` to `MMQ'`; and `(join Q')` is a transformation from `MMQ'` to `MQ'`. So the composite `q <=< p` will be a transformation from `P` to `MQ'`, and so also eligible to be a member of `T`. Now we can specify the "monad laws" governing a monad as follows: (T, <=<, unit) constitute a monoid -That's it. In other words: +That's it. (Well, perhaps we're cheating a bit, because `q <=< p` isn't fully defined on `T`, but only when `P` is a functor to `MP'` and `Q` is a functor from `P'`. But wherever `<=<` is defined, the monoid laws are satisfied: - for all p,q,r in T: - (i) q <=< p etc are also in T + (i) q <=< p is also in T (ii) (r <=< q) <=< p = r <=< (q <=< p) - (iii.1) (unit P') <=< p = p - (iii.2) p = p <=< (unit P) + (iii.1) unit <=< p = p (here p has to be a natural transformation to M(1C)) + (iii.2) p = p <=< unit (here p has to be a natural transformation from 1C) + +If `p` is a natural transformation from `P` to `M(1C)` and `q` is `(p Q')`, that is, a natural transformation from `PQ` to `MQ`, then we can extend (iii.1) as follows: + + q = (p Q') + = ((unit <=< p) Q') + = ((join -v- (M unit) -v- p) Q') + = (join Q') -v- ((M unit) Q') -v- (p Q') + = (join Q') -v- (M (unit Q')) -v- q + ?? + = (unit Q') <=< q + +where as we said `q` is a natural transformation from some `PQ'` to `MQ'`. + +Similarly, if `p` is a natural transformation from `1C` to `MP'`, and `q` is `(p Q)`, that is, a natural transformation from `Q` to `MP'Q`, then we can extend (iii.2) as follows: + + q = (p Q) + = ((p <=< unit) Q) + = (((join P') -v- (M p) -v- unit) Q) + = ((join P'Q) -v- ((M p) Q) -v- (unit Q)) + = ((join P'Q) -v- (M (p Q)) -v- (unit Q)) + ?? + = q <=< (unit Q) + +where as we said `q` is a natural transformation from `Q` to some `MP'Q`. -A word about the P' and P in (iii.1) and (iii.2): since unit on its own is a transformation from 1C to M(1C), it doesn't have the appropriate "type" for unit <=< p or p <=< unit to be defined, for arbitrary p. However, if p is a transformation from P to MP', then (unit P') <=< p and p <=< (unit P) will both be defined. -6. The standard category-theory presentation of the monad laws --------------------------------------------------------------- -In category theory, the monad laws are usually stated in terms of unit and join instead of unit and <=<. +The standard category-theory presentation of the monad laws +----------------------------------------------------------- +In category theory, the monad laws are usually stated in terms of `unit` and `join` instead of `unit` and `<=<`. (* P2. every element c1 of a category C has an identity morphism id[c1] such that for every morphism f:c1->c2 in C: id[c2] o f = f = f o id[c1].