fix previous overwrite

[lambda.git] / index.mdwn

diff --git a/index.mdwn b/index.mdwn
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+++ b/index.mdwn
@@ -2,37 +2,116 @@
 
 or: **What Philosophers and Linguists Can Learn From Theoretical Computer Science But Didn't Know To Ask**
 
 
 or: **What Philosophers and Linguists Can Learn From Theoretical Computer Science But Didn't Know To Ask**
 

-This course is co-taught by [Chris Barker](http://homepages.nyu.edu/~cb125/) and [Jim Pryor](http://www.jimpryor.net/). Linguistics calls it "G61.3340" and Philosophy calls it "G83.2296"
-The seminar meets in spring 2015 on Thursdays from 4 until a bit before 7 (with a short break in the middle), in 
+This course is co-taught by [Chris Barker](http://homepages.nyu.edu/~cb125/) and [Jim Pryor](http://www.jimpryor.net/). Linguistics calls it "LING-GA 3340" and Philosophy calls it "PHIL-GA 2296".
+The seminar meets in spring 2015 on Thursdays from 4 until a bit before 7 (with a short break in the middle), in

 the Linguistics building at 10 Washington Place, in room 103 (front of the first floor).
 
 the Linguistics building at 10 Washington Place, in room 103 (front of the first floor).
 

+One student session to discuss homeworks will be held every Wednesday from 5-6, in Linguistics room 104 (back of the first floor).
+
+## [[Index of Main Content|content]] (lecture notes and more) ##
+
+## [[Offsite Readings|readings]] ##
+
+## Announcements ##
+
+*   This wiki will be undergoing lots of changes throughout the semester, and particularly in these first few days as we get it set up, migrate over some of the content from the previous time
+we taught this course, and iron out various technical wrinkles. Please be patient. When you sit down to read the wiki, it's a good idea to always hit "Refresh" in your browser to make sure you're reading the latest additions and refinements of the website. (Sometimes these will be tweaks, other times very substantial. Updates will happen at miscellaneous hours, sometimes many times in a given day.)
+
+    If you're eager to learn, though, you don't have to wait on us to be ready to serve you. You can go look at the [archived first version](http://lambda1.jimpryor.net) of this course. Just keep in mind that
+the text and links there haven't been updated. And/or you can get started on installing the software and ordering some of the books.
+
+*   As we mentioned in class, if you're following the course and would like to be emailed occasionally, send an email to <mailto:jim.pryor@nyu.edu>, saying "lambda" in the subject line. Most often, we will just post announcements to this website, rather than emailing you. But occasionally an email might be more appropriate.
+

 <!--
 <!--

-One student session will be held every Wednesday from 3-4 on the
-fourth floor at 10 Washington Place.
+*   As we mentioned in class, we're also going to schedule a session to discuss the weekly homeworks. If you'd like to participate in this, please complete [this Doodle poll](http://doodle.com/7xrf4w8xq4i9e5za). It asks when you are available on Tuesdays and Wednesdays.

 -->
 
 -->
 

+*   The student session has been scheduled for Wednesdays from 5-6, in Linguistics room 104 (back of the first floor).

 
 

-## Announcements ##
+    Those of you interested in additional Q&amp;A but who can't make that time, let us know.
+
+    You should see these student sessions as opportunities to clear up lingering
+issues from material we've discussed, and help get a better footing for what
+we'll be doing the next week. It's expected you'll have made at least a serious start on that
+week's homework (due the following day) before the session.
+
+*   Here is information about [[How to get the programming languages running on your computer|installing]]. If those instructions seem overwhelming, note that it should be possible to do a lot of this course using only demonstration versions of these languages [[that run in your web browser|browser]].
+
+*   Henceforth, unless we say otherwise, every homework will be "due" by
+Wednesday morning after the Thursday seminar in which we refer to it.
+(Usually we'll post the assignment shortly before the seminar, but don't
+rely on this.) However, for every assignment there will be a "grace
+period" of one further week for you to continue working on it if you
+have trouble and aren't able to complete the assignment to your
+satisfaction by the due date. You shouldn't hesitate to talk to us---or
+each other!---about the assignments when you do have trouble. We don't
+mind so much if you come across answers to the assignment when browsing
+the web, or the Little Schemer book, or anywhere. So long as you can
+reason yourself through the solutions and experience for yourself the
+insights they embody.
+
+    We reserve the privilege to ruthlessly require you to
+explain your solutions in conversations at any point, in section or in
+class.
+
+    You should always *aim* to complete the assignments by the "due" date,
+as this will fit best with the progress of the seminar.

 
 

-This wiki will be undergoing lots of changes throughout the semester, and particularly in these first few days as we get it set up, migrate over some of the content from the previous time
-we taught this course, and iron out various technical wrinkles. Please be patient.
+    The assignments will tend to be quite challenging. Again, you should by
+all means talk amongst yourselves, and to us, about strategies and
+questions that come up when working through them.

 
 

-If you've eager to learn, though, you don't have to wait on us to be ready to serve you. You can go look at the [archived first version](http://lambda1.jimpryor.net) of this course. Just keep in mind that
-the text and links there haven't been updated.
+    We will not always be able to predict accurately which problems are
+easy and which are hard.  If we misjudge, and choose a problem that is
+too hard for you to complete to your own satisfaction, it is still
+very much worthwhile (and very much appreciated) if you would explain
+what is difficult, what you tried, why what you tried didn't work, and
+what you think you need in order to solve the problem.

 
 

-As we mentioned in class, if you're following the course and would like to be emailed occasionally, send an email to <mailto:jim.pryor@nyu.edu>, saying "lambda" in the subject line. Most often, we will just post announcements to this website, rather than emailing you. But occasionally an email might be more appropriate.

 
 

-As we mentioned in class, we're also going to schedule a session to discuss the weekly homeworks. If you'd like to participate in this, please complete [this Doodle poll](http://doodle.com/7xrf4w8xq4i9e5za). It asks when you are available on Tuesdays and Wednesdays.
+
+
+(**Week 1**) Thursday 29 Jan 2015
+
+> Topics:
+[[Order in programming languages and natural language|topics/week1 order]];
+[[Introduction to functional programming|topics/week1 kapulet intro]];
+[[Homework|exercises/assignment1]];
+[[Advanced notes|topics/week1 kapulet advanced]]
+
+(**Intermezzo**)
+> Help on [[learning Scheme]], [[OCaml|learning OCaml]], and [[Haskell|learning Haskell]];
+The [[differences between our made-up language and Scheme, OCaml, and Haskell|rosetta1]];
+[[What do words like "interpreter" and "compiler" mean?|ecosystem]] (in progress)
+
+(**[[Lambda Evaluator|code/lambda evaluator]]**) Usable in your browser. It can help you check whether your answer to some of the (upcoming) homework questions works correctly.
+<!--
+ There is also now a [library](/lambda library) of lambda-calculus arithmetical and list operations, some relatively advanced.
+-->
+
+(**Week 2**) Thursday 5 February 2015
+> Topics:
+[[Intro to the Lambda Calculus|topics/week2 lambda intro]];
+[[Advanced notes|topics/week2 lambda advanced]];
+[[Encoding Booleans, Tuples, Lists, and Numbers|topics/week2 encodings]];
+[[Homework|exercises/assignment2]]
+
+> Also, if you're reading the Hankin book, try reading Chapters 1-3. You will most likely need to come back again and read it multiple times; but this would be a good time to make the first attempt.
+
+
+<!--
+We've added a [[Monad Library]] for OCaml.
+We've posted a [[State Monad Tutorial]].
+-->

 
 
 ## Course Overview ##
 
 
 
 ## Course Overview ##
 

-The goal of this seminar is to introduce concepts and techniques from
+The overarching goal of this seminar is to introduce concepts and techniques from

 theoretical computer science and show how they can provide insight
 into established philosophical and linguistic problems.
 
 This is not a seminar about any particular technology or software.
 theoretical computer science and show how they can provide insight
 into established philosophical and linguistic problems.
 
 This is not a seminar about any particular technology or software.

-

 Rather, it's about a variety of conceptual/logical ideas that have been
 developed in computer science and that linguists and philosophers ought to
 know, or may already be unknowingly trying to reinvent.
 Rather, it's about a variety of conceptual/logical ideas that have been
 developed in computer science and that linguists and philosophers ought to
 know, or may already be unknowingly trying to reinvent.


@@ -41,7 +120,7 @@ Philosphers and linguists tend to reuse the same familiar tools in
 ever more (sometime spectacularly) creative ways.  But when your only
 hammer is classical logic, every problem looks like modus ponens.  In
 contrast, computer scientists have invested considerable ingenuity in
 ever more (sometime spectacularly) creative ways.  But when your only
 hammer is classical logic, every problem looks like modus ponens.  In
 contrast, computer scientists have invested considerable ingenuity in

-studying tool design, and have made remarkable progress.
+studying the design of their conceptual tools (among other things), and they've made much progress that we can benefit from.

 
 "Why shouldn't I reinvent some idea X for myself? It's intellectually
 rewarding!" Yes it is, but it also takes time you might have better
 
 "Why shouldn't I reinvent some idea X for myself? It's intellectually
 rewarding!" Yes it is, but it also takes time you might have better


@@ -57,44 +136,24 @@ connection to existing literature and neighboring issues may go
 unnoticed. For all these reasons you're better off understanding the
 state of the art.
 
 unnoticed. For all these reasons you're better off understanding the
 state of the art.
 

-The theoretical tools we'll be introducing aren't very familiar to
+The theoretical tools we'll be introducing aren't part of the diet of most

 everyday programmers, but they are prominent in academic computer science,
 especially in the fields of functional programming and type theory.
 
 Of necessity, this course will lay a lot of logical groundwork. But throughout
 we'll be aiming to mix that groundwork with real cases
 everyday programmers, but they are prominent in academic computer science,
 especially in the fields of functional programming and type theory.
 
 Of necessity, this course will lay a lot of logical groundwork. But throughout
 we'll be aiming to mix that groundwork with real cases

-in our home subjects where these tools play central roles.
+in our home subjects where these tools can (or already do, covertly) play central roles.

 
 Our aim for the
 course is to enable you to make these tools your own; to have enough
 understanding of them to recognize them in use, use them yourself at least
 in simple ways, and to be able to read more about them when appropriate.
 
 
 Our aim for the
 course is to enable you to make these tools your own; to have enough
 understanding of them to recognize them in use, use them yourself at least
 in simple ways, and to be able to read more about them when appropriate.
 

-<!--
-Once we get up and running, the central focii of the course will be
-**continuations**, **types**, and **monads**. One of the on-going themes will
-concern evaluation order and issues about how computations (inferences,
-derivations) unfold in (for instance) time.  The key analytic technique is to
-form a static, order-independent model of a dynamic process. We'll be
-discussing this in much more detail as the course proceeds.
-
-The logical systems we'll be looking at include:
-
-*      the pure/untyped lambda calculus
-*      combinatorial logic
-*      the simply-typed lambda calculus
-*      polymorphic types with System F
-*      some discussion of dependent types
-*      if time permits, "indeterministic" or "preemptively parallel" computation and linear logic
-
-
-Other keywords:
-       recursion using the Y-combinator
-       evaluation-order stratgies
-       normalizing properties
-       the Curry-Howard isomorphism(s)
-       monads in category theory and computation
--->
+"Computer Science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes." -- [E. W. Dijkstra](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra) <small>(or Hal Abelson, or Michael Fellows; the quote's <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Computer_science">origins are murky</a>)</small>
+
+
+[[More about the topics and larger themes of the course|overview]]
+

 
 ## Who Can Participate? ##
 
 
 ## Who Can Participate? ##
 


@@ -109,15 +168,14 @@ it will not be especially well-suited to be a first graduate-level course
 in formal semantics or philosophy of language. If you have concerns about your
 background, come discuss them with us.
 
 in formal semantics or philosophy of language. If you have concerns about your
 background, come discuss them with us.
 

-<!--
-This class will count as satisfying the logic requirement for Philosophy
-PhD students; however if this would be your first or only serious
+If you hope to have the class satisfy the logic requirement for Philosophy PhD students, this needs to be discussed with us and approved in advance. If this would be
+your first or only serious

 engagement with graduate-level formal work you should consider
 carefully, and must discuss with us, (1) whether you'll be adequately
 prepared for this course, and (2) whether you'd be better served by
 engagement with graduate-level formal work you should consider
 carefully, and must discuss with us, (1) whether you'll be adequately
 prepared for this course, and (2) whether you'd be better served by

-taking a logic course (at a neighboring department, or at NYU next year)
+taking a logic course

 with a more canonical syllabus.
 with a more canonical syllabus.

--->
+This term you could take PHIL-GA 1003, [Logic for Philosophers](http://jdh.hamkins.org), offered by Joel Hamkins on Wednesdays 12-2.

 
 Faculty and students from outside of NYU Linguistics and Philosophy are welcome
 to audit, to the extent that this coheres well with the needs of our local
 
 Faculty and students from outside of NYU Linguistics and Philosophy are welcome
 to audit, to the extent that this coheres well with the needs of our local


@@ -127,55 +185,101 @@ students.
 ## Recommended Software ##
 
 During the course, we'll be encouraging you to try out various things in Scheme
 ## Recommended Software ##
 
 During the course, we'll be encouraging you to try out various things in Scheme

-and Caml, which are prominent *functional programming languages*. We'll explain
-what that means during the course.
+and OCaml. Occasionally we will also make remarks about Haskell. All three of these
+are prominent *functional programming languages*. The term "functional" here means they have
+a special concern with functions, not just that they aren't broken. But what precisely is
+meant by "functional" is somewhat fuzzy and even its various precisifications take some
+time to explain. We'll get clearer on this during the course. Another term used roughly the same as "functional"
+is "declarative." At a first pass, "functional" or "declarative" programming is primarily focused on complex
+expressions that get computationally evaluated to some (usually simpler) result. In class I gave the examples
+of `1+2` (which gets evaluated in arithmetic to `3`), `1+2 < 5` (which gets evaluated in arithmetic to a truth-value), and `1`
+(which gets evaluated in arithmetic to `1`). Also Google search strings, which get evaluated by Google servers to a
+list of links.
+
+The dominant contrasting class of programming languages (the great majority of what's used
+in industry) are called "imperatival" languages, meaning they have more to do with following a sequence of commands (generating what we
+called in class "side-effects", though sometimes what they're *alongside* is not that interesting, and all the focus is instead
+on the effects). Programming languages like C and Python and JavaScript and so on are predominantly of this sort.
+
+In truth, nothing that gets marketed as a "programming language" is really completely 100% functional/declarative, and even the
+languages I called "imperatival" will have some "functional" *fragments* (they evaluate `1+2` to `3`, also). So these labels aren't
+strictly exclusive. The labels are better thought of as concerning different
+*styles* or *idioms* of programming. Languages like Scheme and OCaml and especially Haskell get called "functional languages" because
+of the extent to which they emphasize, and are designed around those idioms. Languages like Python and JavaScript are sometimes themselves
+described as "more functional" than other languages, like C.
+
+In any case, here is
+<a name=installing></a>
+[[How to get the programming languages running on your computer|installing]].
+And here is some more context for the three languages we will be focusing on:

 
 

-*      **Scheme** is one of two major dialects of *Lisp*, which is a large family
+*   **Scheme** is one of two or three major dialects of *Lisp*, which is a large family

 of programming languages. Scheme
 of programming languages. Scheme

-is the more clean and minimalistic dialect, and is what's mostly used in
+is the more clean and minimalist dialect of Lisp, and is what's mostly used in

 academic circles.
 Scheme itself has umpteen different "implementations", which share most of
 their fundamentals, but have slightly different extensions and interact with
 academic circles.
 Scheme itself has umpteen different "implementations", which share most of
 their fundamentals, but have slightly different extensions and interact with

-the operating system differently. One major implementation used to be called
-PLT Scheme, and has just in the past few weeks changed their name to Racket.
-This is what we recommend you use. (If you're already using or comfortable with
-another Scheme implementation, though, there's no compelling reason to switch.)
+the operating system differently. One major implementation is called Racket,
+and that is what we recommend you use. If you're already using or comfortable with
+another Scheme implementation, though, there's no compelling reason to switch.
+
+    Another good Scheme implementation is Chicken. For our purposes, this is in some
+respects superior to Racket, and in other respects inferior. <!--
+Racket doesn't have R7RS-small, and won't anytime soon. :-(
+Also Chicken's library collection seems stronger, or at least better organized and maintained.
+Other R7RS-friendly: [Gauche](http://practical-scheme.net/gauche), [Chibi](https://code.google.com/p/chibi-scheme).
+-->
+
+    Racket and Chicken stand to Scheme in something like the relation Firefox stands to HTML.
+
+    (Wikipedia on
+[Lisp](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_%28programming_language%29),
+[Scheme](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheme_%28programming_language%29),
+[Racket](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket_%28programming_language%29), and
+[Chicken](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHICKEN_%28Scheme_implementation%29).)  
+    (Help on [[Learning Scheme]])

 
 

-       Racket stands to Scheme in something like the relation Firefox stands to HTML.
+*   **Caml** is one of two major dialects of *ML*, which is another large
+family of programming languages. Caml has only one active "implementation",
+OCaml, developed by the INRIA academic group in France. Sometimes we may refer to Caml or ML
+more generally; but you can assume that what we're talking about always works more
+specifically in OCaml.

 
 

-*      **Caml** is one of two major dialects of *ML*, which is another large
-family of programming languages. Caml has only one active implementation,
-OCaml, developed by the INRIA academic group in France.
+    (Wikipedia on
+[ML](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ML_%28programming_language%29),
+[Caml](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caml), and
+[OCaml](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml).)  
+    (Help on [[Learning OCaml]])

 
 

-*      Those of you with some programming background may have encountered a third
-prominent functional programming language, **Haskell**. This is also used a
+
+*   **Haskell** is also used a

 lot in the academic contexts we'll be working through. Its surface syntax
 differs from Caml, and there are various important things one can do in
 each of Haskell and Caml that one can't (or can't as easily) do in the
 lot in the academic contexts we'll be working through. Its surface syntax
 differs from Caml, and there are various important things one can do in
 each of Haskell and Caml that one can't (or can't as easily) do in the

-other. But these languages also have a lot in common, and if you're
-familiar with one of them, it's not difficult to move between it and the
+other. But these languages also have *a lot* in common, and if you're
+familiar with one of them, it's generally not hard to move between it and the

 other.
 
 other.
 

-<!--
-<a name=installing></a>
-[[How to get the programming languages running on your computer]]
-
-[[Family tree of functional programming languages]]
+    Like Scheme, Haskell has a couple of different implementations. The
+dominant one, and the one we recommend you install, is called GHC, short
+for "Glasgow Haskell Compiler".

 
 

-[[Translating between OCaml Scheme and Haskell]]
+    (Wikipedia on
+[Haskell](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_%28programming_language%29) and
+[GHC](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Haskell_Compiler).)  
+    (Help on [[Learning Haskell]])

 
 

-## What is Functional Programming? ##
+<!--
+[Helium](https://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell/2003-January/011071.html) is a simplified Haskell for teaching (no typeclasses)
+-->

 
 

-Here's a [survey conducted at Microsoft](http://research.microsoft.com/apps/pubs/default.aspx?id=141506) asking programmers what they understand "functional programming" to be. Don't take their responses to be authoritative... this is a just a "man in the street" (seat?) poll.

 
 

-Read more about the [uptake of Haskell](http://steve-yegge.blogspot.com/2010/12/haskell-researchers-announce-discovery.html) among programmers in the street.
--->

 
 ## Recommended Books ##
 
 It's not *mandatory* to purchase these for the class. But they are good ways to get a more thorough and solid understanding of some of the more basic conceptual tools we'll be using. We especially recommend the first three of them.
 
 
 ## Recommended Books ##
 
 It's not *mandatory* to purchase these for the class. But they are good ways to get a more thorough and solid understanding of some of the more basic conceptual tools we'll be using. We especially recommend the first three of them.
 

-*      *An Introduction to Lambda Calculi for Computer Scientists*, by Chris
+*   *An Introduction to Lambda Calculi for Computer Scientists*, by Chris

 Hankin, currently $18 paperback on
 [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0954300653).
 
 Hankin, currently $18 paperback on
 [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0954300653).
 


@@ -188,25 +292,48 @@ interest for this course** is the explanation of the Y combinator, available as
 a free sample chapter [at the MIT Press web page for the
 book](http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/matthias/BTLS/).
 
 a free sample chapter [at the MIT Press web page for the
 book](http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/matthias/BTLS/).
 

-*      *The Seasoned Schemer*, also by Daniel P. Friedman and Matthias Felleisen, currently $29 paperback
+*   *The Seasoned Schemer*, also by Daniel P. Friedman and Matthias Felleisen, currently $29 paperback

 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/Seasoned-Schemer-Daniel-P-Friedman/dp/026256100X). This is a sequel to The Little Schemer, and it focuses on mutation and continuations in Scheme. We will be covering those topics in the second half of the course.
 
 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/Seasoned-Schemer-Daniel-P-Friedman/dp/026256100X). This is a sequel to The Little Schemer, and it focuses on mutation and continuations in Scheme. We will be covering those topics in the second half of the course.
 

-*      *The Little MLer*, by Matthias Felleisen and Daniel P. Friedman, currently $31 paperback / $29 kindle
+*   *The Little MLer*, by Matthias Felleisen and Daniel P. Friedman, currently $31 paperback / $29 kindle

 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/Little-MLer-Matthias-Felleisen/dp/026256114X).
 This covers much of the same introductory ground as The Little Schemer, but
 this time in a dialect of ML. It doesn't use OCaml, the dialect we'll be working with, but instead another dialect of ML called SML. The syntactic differences between these languages is slight.
 ([Here's a translation manual between them](http://www.mpi-sws.org/~rossberg/sml-vs-ocaml.html).)
 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/Little-MLer-Matthias-Felleisen/dp/026256114X).
 This covers much of the same introductory ground as The Little Schemer, but
 this time in a dialect of ML. It doesn't use OCaml, the dialect we'll be working with, but instead another dialect of ML called SML. The syntactic differences between these languages is slight.
 ([Here's a translation manual between them](http://www.mpi-sws.org/~rossberg/sml-vs-ocaml.html).)

-Still, that does add an extra layer of interpretation, and you might as well just use The Little Schemer instead. Those of you who are already more comfortable with OCaml (or with Haskell) than with Scheme might consider working through this book instead of The Little Schemer; for the rest of you, or those of you who *want* practice with Scheme, go with The Little Schemer.
+Still, that does add an extra layer of interpretation, and you might as well
+just use The Little Schemer instead. Those of you who are already more
+comfortable with OCaml (or with Haskell) than with Scheme might consider
+working through this book instead of The Little Schemer. For the rest of you,
+or those of you who *want* practice with Scheme, go with The Little Schemer.
+
+*   *The Haskell Road to Logic, Math and Programming*, by Kees Doets and Jan van Eijck, currently $22 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0954300696) is a textbook teaching the parts of math and logic we cover in the first few weeks of Logic for Philosophers. (Notions like validity, proof theory for predicate logic, sets, sequences, relations, functions, inductive proofs and recursive definitions, and so on.) The math here should be accessible and familiar to all of you. What is novel about this book is that it integrates the exposition of these notions with a training in (part of) Haskell. It only covers the rudiments of Haskell's type system, and doesn't cover monads; but if you wanted to review this material and become comfortable with core pieces of Haskell in the process, this could be a good read.
+(The book also seems to be available online [here](http://fldit-www.cs.uni-dortmund.de/~peter/PS07/HR.pdf).)
+
+
+The rest of these are a bit more advanced, and are also looser suggestions:

 
 

-*      Another good book covering the same ground as the Hankin book, but
+*   *Computational Semantics with Functional Programming*, by Jan van Eijck and Christina Unger, currently $42 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521757606). We own this but haven't read it yet. It *looks* like it's doing the same kind of thing this seminar aims to do: exploring how natural language meanings can be understood to be "computed". The text uses Haskell, and is aimed at linguists and philosophers as well as computer scientists. Definitely worth a look.
+<!--
+It deals with both denotational meaning (where meaning
+comes from knowing the conditions of truth in situations), and
+operational meaning (where meaning is an instruction for performing
+cognitive action).
+-->
+
+*   Another good book covering the same ground as the Hankin book, but

 more thoroughly, and in a more mathematical style, is *Lambda-Calculus and Combinators:
 an Introduction*, by J. Roger Hindley and Jonathan P. Seldin, currently $74 hardback / $65 kindle on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521898854).
 more thoroughly, and in a more mathematical style, is *Lambda-Calculus and Combinators:
 an Introduction*, by J. Roger Hindley and Jonathan P. Seldin, currently $74 hardback / $65 kindle on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0521898854).

-This book is substantial and though it doesn't presuppose any specific mathematical background knowledge, it will be a good choice only if you're already comfortable reading advanced math textbooks.
+This book is substantial; and although it doesn't presuppose any specific
+mathematical background knowledge, it will be a good choice only if you're
+already comfortable reading advanced math textbooks.

 If you choose to read both the Hankin book and this book, you'll notice the authors made some different
 terminological/notational choices. At first, this makes comprehension slightly slower,
 but in the long run it's helpful because it makes the arbitrariness of those choices more salient.
 
 If you choose to read both the Hankin book and this book, you'll notice the authors made some different
 terminological/notational choices. At first, this makes comprehension slightly slower,
 but in the long run it's helpful because it makes the arbitrariness of those choices more salient.
 

-*      Another good book, covering some of the same ground as the Hankin, and the Hindley &amp; Seldin, but delving deeper into typed lambda calculi, is *Types and Programming Languages*, by Benjamin Pierce, currently $77 hardback / $68 kindle on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262162091). This book has many examples in OCaml.
+
+*   Another good book, covering a bit of the same ground as the Hankin and the Hindley &amp; Seldin, but focusing especially on typed lambda calculi, is *Types and Programming Languages*, by Benjamin Pierce, currently $77 hardback / $68 kindle on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262162091). This book has many examples in OCaml. It seems to be the standard textbook for CS students learning type theory.
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+*   The next two books focus on the formal semantics of typed programming languages, both in the "denotational" form that most closely corresponds to what we mean by semantics, and in the "operational" form very often used in CS. These are: *The Formal Semantics of Programming Languages*, by Glynn Winskel, currently $38 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262731037), and *Semantics of Programming Languages*, by Carl Gunter, currently $41 on [Amazon](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0262071436).

 
 
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@@ -214,5 +341,3 @@ but in the long run it's helpful because it makes the arbitrariness of those cho
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