Types and OCaml
---------------
-0. Recall that the S combinator is given by \x y z. x z (y z).
- Give two different typings for this function in OCaml.
- To get you started, here's one typing for K:
+0. Recall that the S combinator is given by \x y z. x z (y z).
+ Give two different typings for this function in OCaml.
+ To get you started, here's one typing for K:
- # let k (y:'a) (n:'b) = y;;
- val k : 'a -> 'b -> 'a = [fun]
- # k 1 true;;
- - : int = 1
+ # let k (y:'a) (n:'b) = y;;
+ val k : 'a -> 'b -> 'a = [fun]
+ # k 1 true;;
+ - : int = 1
-1. Which of the following expressions is well-typed in OCaml?
- For those that are, give the type of the expression as a whole.
- For those that are not, why not?
+1. Which of the following expressions is well-typed in OCaml?
+ For those that are, give the type of the expression as a whole.
+ For those that are not, why not?
- let rec f x = f x;;
+ let rec f x = f x;;
- let rec f x = f f;;
+ let rec f x = f f;;
- let rec f x = f x in f f;;
+ let rec f x = f x in f f;;
- let rec f x = f x in f ();;
+ let rec f x = f x in f ();;
- let rec f () = f f;;
+ let rec f () = f f;;
- let rec f () = f ();;
+ let rec f () = f ();;
- let rec f () = f () in f f;;
+ let rec f () = f () in f f;;
- let rec f () = f () in f ();;
+ let rec f () = f () in f ();;
-2. Throughout this problem, assume that we have
+2. Throughout this problem, assume that we have
- let rec omega x = omega x;;
+ let rec blackhole x = blackhole x;;
- All of the following are well-typed.
- Which ones terminate? What are the generalizations?
+ All of the following are well-typed.
+ Which ones terminate? What are the generalizations?
- omega;;
+ blackhole;;
- omega ();;
+ blackhole ();;
- fun () -> omega ();;
+ fun () -> blackhole ();;
- (fun () -> omega ()) ();;
+ (fun () -> blackhole ()) ();;
- if true then omega else omega;;
+ if true then blackhole else blackhole;;
- if false then omega else omega;;
+ if false then blackhole else blackhole;;
- if true then omega else omega ();;
+ if true then blackhole else blackhole ();;
- if false then omega else omega ();;
+ if false then blackhole else blackhole ();;
- if true then omega () else omega;;
+ if true then blackhole () else blackhole;;
- if false then omega () else omega;;
+ if false then blackhole () else blackhole;;
- if true then omega () else omega ();;
+ if true then blackhole () else blackhole ();;
- if false then omega () else omega ();;
+ if false then blackhole () else blackhole ();;
- let _ = omega in 2;;
+ let _ = blackhole in 2;;
- let _ = omega () in 2;;
+ let _ = blackhole () in 2;;
-3. This problem is to begin thinking about controlling order of evaluation.
+3. This problem is to begin thinking about controlling order of evaluation.
The following expression is an attempt to make explicit the
behavior of `if`-`then`-`else` explored in the previous question.
-The idea is to define an `if`-`then`-`else` expression using
+The idea is to define an `if`-`then`-`else` expression using
other expression types. So assume that "yes" is any OCaml expression,
and "no" is any other OCaml expression (of the same type as "yes"!),
and that "bool" is any boolean. Then we can try the following:
"if bool then yes else no" should be equivalent to
- let b = bool in
- let y = yes in
- let n = no in
- match b with true -> y | false -> n
+ let b = bool in
+ let y = yes in
+ let n = no in
+ match b with true -> y | false -> n
-This almost works. For instance,
+ This almost works. For instance,
- if true then 1 else 2;;
+ if true then 1 else 2;;
-evaluates to 1, and
+ evaluates to 1, and
- let b = true in let y = 1 in let n = 2 in
- match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
+ let b = true in let y = 1 in let n = 2 in
+ match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
-also evaluates to 1. Likewise,
+ also evaluates to 1. Likewise,
- if false then 1 else 2;;
+ if false then 1 else 2;;
-and
+ and
- let b = false in let y = 1 in let n = 2 in
- match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
+ let b = false in let y = 1 in let n = 2 in
+ match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
-both evaluate to 2.
+ both evaluate to 2.
-However,
+ However,
- let rec omega x = omega x in
- if true then omega else omega ();;
+ let rec blackhole x = blackhole x in
+ if true then blackhole else blackhole ();;
-terminates, but
+ terminates, but
- let rec omega x = omega x in
- let b = true in
- let y = omega in
- let n = omega () in
- match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
+ let rec blackhole x = blackhole x in
+ let b = true in
+ let y = blackhole in
+ let n = blackhole () in
+ match b with true -> y | false -> n;;
-does not terminate. Incidentally, `match bool with true -> yes |
-false -> no;;` works as desired, but your assignment is to solve it
-without using the magical evaluation order properties of either `if`
-or of `match`. That is, you must keep the `let` statements, though
-you're allowed to adjust what `b`, `y`, and `n` get assigned to.
+ does not terminate. Incidentally, `match bool with true -> yes |
+ false -> no;;` works as desired, but your assignment is to solve it
+ without using the magical evaluation order properties of either `if`
+ or of `match`. That is, you must keep the `let` statements, though
+ you're allowed to adjust what `b`, `y`, and `n` get assigned to.
-[[Hint assignment 5 problem 3]]
+ [[Hint assignment 5 problem 3]]
-Baby monads
------------
+Booleans, Church numerals, and v3 lists in OCaml
+------------------------------------------------
+
+(These questions adapted from web materials by Umut Acar. See <http://www.mpi-sws.org/~umut/>.)
- Read the lecture notes for week 6, then write a
- function `lift` that generalized the correspondence between + and
- `add`: that is, `lift` takes any two-place operation on integers
- and returns a version that takes arguments of type `int option`
- instead, returning a result of `int option`. In other words,
- `lift` will have type
+Let's think about the encodings of booleans, numerals and lists in System F, and get datastructures with the same explicit form working in OCaml. (The point... so we won't rely on OCaml's native booleans, integers, or lists.)
- (int -> int -> int) -> (int option) -> (int option) -> (int option)
+Recall from class System F, or the polymorphic λ-calculus.
- so that `lift (+) (Some 3) (Some 4)` will evalute to `Some 7`.
- Don't worry about why you need to put `+` inside of parentheses.
- You should make use of `bind` in your definition of `lift`:
+ types τ ::= c | 'a | τ1 → τ2 | ∀'a. τ
+ expressions e ::= x | λx:τ. e | e1 e2 | Λ'a. e | e [τ]
- let bind (x: int option) (f: int -> (int option)) =
- match x with None -> None | Some n -> f n;;
+The boolean type, and its two values, may be encoded as follows:
+ bool := ∀'a. 'a → 'a → 'a
+ true := Λ'a. λt:'a. λf :'a. t
+ false := Λ'a. λt:'a. λf :'a. f
-Booleans, Church numbers, and Church lists in OCaml
----------------------------------------------------
+It's used like this:
-(These questions adapted from web materials by Umut Acar. See <http://www.mpi-sws.org/~umut/>.)
+ b [τ] e1 e2
+
+where b is a boolean value, and τ is the shared type of e1 and e2.
-The idea is to get booleans, Church numbers, "Church" lists, and
-binary trees working in OCaml.
+**Exercise**. How should we implement the following terms. Note that the result of applying them to the appropriate arguments should also give us a term of type bool.
- Recall from class System F, or the polymorphic λ-calculus.
+(a) the term not that takes an argument of type bool and computes its negation;
+(b) the term and that takes two arguments of type bool and computes their conjunction;
+(c) the term or that takes two arguments of type bool and computes their disjunction.
- τ ::= α | τ1 → τ2 | ∀α. τ
- e ::= x | λx:τ. e | e1 e2 | Λα. e | e [τ ]
- Recall that bool may be encoded as follows:
+The type nat (for "natural number") may be encoded as follows:
- bool := ∀α. α → α → α
- true := Λα. λt:α. λf :α. t
- false := Λα. λt:α. λf :α. f
+ nat := ∀'a. 'a → ('a → 'a) → 'a
+ zero := Λ'a. λz:'a. λs:'a → 'a. z
+ succ := λn:nat. Λ'a. λz:'a. λs:'a → 'a. s (n ['a] z s)
- (where τ indicates the type of e1 and e2)
+A nat n is defined by what it can do, which is to compute a function iterated n
+times. In the polymorphic encoding above, the result of that iteration can be
+any type 'a, as long as you have a base element z : 'a and a function s : 'a → 'a.
- Note that each of the following terms, when applied to the
- appropriate arguments, return a result of type bool.
+**Excercise**: get booleans and Church numbers working in OCaml,
+including OCaml versions of bool, true, false, zero, iszero, succ, and **pred**.
- (a) the term not that takes an argument of type bool and computes its negation;
- (b) the term and that takes two arguments of type bool and computes their conjunction;
- (c) the term or that takes two arguments of type bool and computes their disjunction.
+Consider the following list type:
- The type nat (for "natural number") may be encoded as follows:
+ type 'a list = Nil | Cons of 'a * 'a list
- nat := ∀α. α → (α → α) → α
- zero := Λα. λz:α. λs:α → α. z
- succ := λn:nat. Λα. λz:α. λs:α → α. s (n [α] z s)
+We can encode τ lists, lists of elements of type τ as follows:
- A nat n is defined by what it can do, which is to compute a function iterated n times. In the polymorphic
- encoding above, the result of that iteration can be any type α, as long as you have a base element z : α and
- a function s : α → α.
+ τ list := ∀'a. 'a → (τ → 'a → 'a) → 'a
+ nil τ := Λ'a. λn:'a. λc:τ → 'a → 'a. n
+ make_list τ := λh:τ. λt:τ list. Λ'a. λn:'a. λc:τ → 'a → 'a. c h (t ['a] n c)
- **Excercise**: get booleans and Church numbers working in OCaml,
- including OCaml versions of bool, true, false, zero, succ, add.
+As with nats, recursion is built into the datatype.
- Consider the following list type:
+We can write functions like map:
- type ’a list = Nil | Cons of ’a * ’a list
+ map : (σ → τ ) → σ list → τ list
+ = λf :σ → τ. λl:σ list. l [τ list] nilτ (λx:σ. λy:τ list. consτ (f x) y
- We can encode τ lists, lists of elements of type τ as follows:
+**Excercise** convert this function to OCaml. Also write an `append` function.
+Also write a **head** function. Test with simple lists.
- τ list := ∀α. α → (τ → α → α) → α
- nilτ := Λα. λn:α. λc:τ → α → α. n
- makeListτ := λh:τ. λt:τ list. Λα. λn:α. λc:τ → α → α. c h (t [α] n c)
- As with nats, recursion is built into the datatype.
+Consider the following simple binary tree type:
- We can write functions like map:
+ type 'a tree = Leaf | Node of 'a tree * 'a * 'a tree
+
+**Excercise**
+Write a function `sum_leaves` that computes the sum of all the
+leaves in an int tree.
+
+Write a function `in_order` : τ tree → τ list that computes the in-order traversal of a binary tree. You
+may assume the above encoding of lists; define any auxiliary functions you need.
+
+Baby monads
+-----------
- map : (σ → τ ) → σ list → τ list
- := λf :σ → τ. λl:σ list. l [τ list] nilτ (λx:σ. λy:τ list. consτ (f x) y
+Read the lecture notes for week 6, then write a
+function `lift'` that generalized the correspondence between + and
+`add'`: that is, `lift'` takes any two-place operation on integers
+and returns a version that takes arguments of type `int option`
+instead, returning a result of `int option`. In other words,
+`lift'` will have type
- **Excercise** convert this function to OCaml. Also write an `append` function.
- Test with simple lists.
+ (int -> int -> int) -> (int option) -> (int option) -> (int option)
- Consider the following simple binary tree type:
+so that `lift' (+) (Some 3) (Some 4)` will evalute to `Some 7`.
+Don't worry about why you need to put `+` inside of parentheses.
+You should make use of `bind'` in your definition of `lift'`:
- type ’a tree = Leaf | Node of ’a tree * ’a * ’a tree
+ let bind' (x: int option) (f: int -> (int option)) =
+ match x with None -> None | Some n -> f n;;
- **Excercise**
- Write a function `sumLeaves` that computes the sum of all the
- leaves in an int tree.
- Write a function `inOrder` : τ tree → τ list that computes the in-order traversal of a binary tree. You
- may assume the above encoding of lists; define any auxiliary functions you need.