1 Expressives such as "damn" have side effects that don't affect the
2 at-issue value of the sentence in which they occur. What this claim
3 says is unpacked at some length here: <http://tinyurl.com/cbarker/salt/interaction/salt.pdf>.
5 In brief, "The man read the damn book" means the same thing as "The
6 man read the book" as far as what must be the case in the world for
7 the sentence to be true. However, the sentence with the "damn" in it
8 in addition conveys the claim that something about the described
9 situtation is not as it should be. (The person who is committed to
10 that claim is whoever utters the sentence.)
12 So we need a way of evaluating sentences that allows "damn" to launch
13 a side effect without affecting the truth conditions of the sentence
16 Furthermore, we don't want to change the meaning of "the", "man",
17 "read", or "book"---those elements are completely innocent, and
18 shouldn't be burdened with helping compute affective content.
22 What we did in Monday's seminar:
24 We start with a simulation of semantic composition:
26 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
31 That evaluates to nested structure of pairs, that Scheme displays as:
33 ((the . man) . (read . (the . book)))
35 `(cons M N)` is a request to build an ordered pair out of the values M and N.
36 Scheme displays that pair as `(M . N)` You can't write the pair that way yourself:
37 if you tried to, Scheme would think you're trying to apply the function M to some arguments, which you're not, and also
38 Scheme would be confused by what argument the `.` is supposed to be. So, you say:
42 and that evaluates to an ordered pair, and Scheme displays that ordered pair as
46 There is an underlying reason why parentheses are used both when displaying the ordered pair, and also to mean "apply this function to these arguments." However, at this point, you may well see this as a confusing overloading of parentheses to fill different syntactic roles.
48 Now what about the elements of our ordered pairs. Why do we say `(cons 'the 'man)`. Why are those single quotes there? Well, if you just said `(cons the man)`, Scheme would understand `the` and `man` to be variables, and it would complain that you hadn't bound these variables to any values. We don't want to build an ordered pair out of the values possessed by variables `the` and `man`. Instead, we want to just make up some primitive value THE to stand for the meaning of an object-language determiner, and some primitive value MAN to stand for the meaning of an object-language noun phrase. The notation `'the` is Scheme's way of designating a primitive atomic value. Note there is no closing single quote, only a prefixed one. Scheme calls these primitive atomic values "symbols." That term is a bit misleading, because the symbol `'the` is not the same as the variable `the`. Neither is it the same as what's called the string `"the"`. The latter is a structured value, composed out of three character values. The symbol `'the`, on the other hand, is an atomic value. It has no parts. (The notation the programmer uses to designate this atomic value has four characters, but the value designated itself has no parts.) If you think this is all somewhat confusing, you're right. It gets easier with practice.
50 `'the` can also be written `(quote the)`. This is even more confusing, because here the `the` is not interpreted as a variable. (Try `(let* ((the 3)) (quote the))`.) If you come across this, just read `(quote the)` as a verbose (and perhaps misleading) way of writing `'the`, not as the application of any function to any value.
52 Okay, so what we've done is just create a bunch of new atomic values `'the`, `'man`, and so on. Scheme doesn't know how to do much with these. It knows for instance that `'the` is the same value as `'the` and a different value than `'man`. But it doesn't know much more than that. That's all we need or want here.
54 And we built a tree out of those values, representing the tree by a nested structure of pairs of leaf-labels.
56 The program we submitted to Scheme:
58 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
63 evaluates to the nested structure of pairs that Scheme displays as:
65 ((the . man) . (read . (the . book)))
67 and that we can think of as the tree:
79 meaning of meaning of meaning of \
80 "the" "man" "read" / \
87 Okay, let's get back to "damn."
89 We start by defining `damn` as a "thunk" that when applied to zero arguments returns a trivial adjectival meaning, which we'll designate with the primitive symbol `'id`.
93 Remember, in Scheme you can have functions that take one value, and also functions that take two values, and also functions that take zero values. The last ones are called "thunks." The thunk is not identical to the value it returns. For instance:
97 is a thunk that returns the integer 3. If we bind the variable `t` to that thunk, then `t` is a function (Scheme will display it as`#<procedure>`)
98 not an integer. Whereas `(t)` is an integer not a function.
100 There's no reason yet on hand for us to make `damn` be a thunk. For present purposes, we could also just define `damn` to be the symbol `'id`. But what we're going to go on to do does require us to make `damn` be a thunk. The reason for that is to postpone the evaluation of some expressions until the continuations we want to operate on are in place.
102 So for uniformity we're going to make `damn` be a thunk right from the beginning.
104 As we said, `damn` starts as a thunk that returns a trivial adjectival meaning `'id`:
106 (define damn (lambda () 'id))
110 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
118 ((the . man) . (read . (the . (id . book))))
121 Now we want to get some affective meaning into damn. So we might try:
124 (define damn (lambda () 'bad))
128 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
136 ((the . man) . (read . (the . (bad . book))))
138 Which is not quite what we're looking for. We don't want to contribute the normal adjectival meaning of "bad" to the proposition asserted. Instead we want badness to be a side-issue linguistic contribution. We might try:
140 (define damn (lambda () (cons 'side-effect 'bad)))
144 ((the . man) . (read . (the . ((side-effect . bad) . book))))
146 and we said at the outset that the context `(the . ( ... . book))` shouldn't need to know how to interact with affective meanings. That's precisely the problem we're trying to solve.
149 A promising way to handle this is with **continuations**, which you will get much more familiar with as this seminar progresses. Don't worry about not understanding what's going on quite yet. This is just an advertisement that's supposed to provoke your imagination.
151 Chris and others have applied the apparatus of continuations to the analysis of expressives in the paper cited at the top. For a simple in-class demonstration, we tried to do the following.
153 (call/cc (lambda k ...))
155 is Scheme's way of saying:
157 > bind the continuation of this very complex expression to k and evaluate the `...`
160 So now we define `damn` like this:
162 (define damn (lambda () (call/cc (lambda (k) (print "bad") (k 'id)))))
166 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
172 we get something like this:
174 <bold>"bad"</bad> ((the . man) . (read . (the . (id . book))))
176 Yay! The affective meaning has jumped out of the compositional evaluation of the main sentence, and the context `(the . (... . book))` only has to deal with the trivial adjectival meaning `'id`.
178 **But.** As came out in discussion, the `print` we're using here already constitutes a kind of side-effect mechanism of its own. If you say:
180 (define three-thunk (lambda () (print "hi") 3))
182 and then ask for the evaluation of:
186 you'll see something like:
190 So the demonstration we tried in class was pedagogically flawed. It didn't properly display how continuations are a minimally effective apparatus for representing affective meaning. In fact, continuations were still doing the work, but it wasn't the explicit continuations we were writing out for you. It was instead continuations implicit in the `print` operation.
192 So a better demonstration would do without any device like `print` that already incorporates continuations implicitly. Any continuation-manipulation should be fully explicit.
194 Instead of representing the side-issue affective contribution by printing "bad", let's instead try to build a pair of side-effect contributions and main-issue assertion. Then what we want would be something like:
196 ((side-effect . bad) . ((the . man) . (read . (the . (id . book)))))
198 Only we want to get this from the evaluation of:
200 (cons (cons 'the 'man)
206 where `(damn)` doesn't have widest scope. And we don't want to have to recruit all the other semantic material into accepting and passing along a possible affective argument.
210 It's not immediately clear how to do it with "undelimited" continuations, of the sort captured by `call/cc`. This is the natural first thing to try:
213 (define damn (lambda () (call/cc (lambda (k) (cons (cons 'side-effect 'bad) (k 'id))))))
216 The idea here is we capture the continuation that the thunk `(damn)` has when it gets evaluated. This continuation is bound to the variable `k`. We supply `'id` as an argument to that continuation. When the main-issues tree is all built, then we return a pair `((side-effect bad) MAIN-ISSUE-TREE)`.
218 However, this doesn't work. The reason is that an undelimited continuation represents the future of the evaluation of `(damn)` *until the end of the computation*. So when `'id` is supplied to `k`, we go back to building the main-issue tree until we're finished *and that's the end of the computation*. We never get to go back and evaluate the context `(cons (cons 'side-effect 'bad) ...)`.
220 The straightforward way to fix this is to use, not undelimited continuations, but instead a more powerful apparatus called "delimited continuations." These too will be explained in due course, don't expect to understand all this now.
222 A delimited continuation is captured not by using `call/cc`, but instead by using a variety of other operators. We'll use the operator `shift`. This substitutes for `call/cc`. The syntax in Scheme is slightly different. Whereas we wrote:
224 (call/cc (lambda k ...))
230 but the behavior is the same. It's just that now our continuation doesn't stretch until the end of the computation, but only up to some specified limit. The limit of the continuation is specified using the syntax:
234 This is a kind of continuation-scope-marker. There are some interesting default behaviors if you don't explicitly specify where the limits are. But we'll be fully explicit here.
236 If a block `...` never invokes a shift, then `(reset ...)` will evaluate just the same as `...`. So for uniformity, we can designate our continuation-scopes even on computations that don't capture and manipulate continuations.
238 Going back to the beginning, then. We start with:
240 (define damn (lambda () 'id))
244 (reset (cons (cons 'the 'man)
250 Remember, the reset isn't actually *doing* anything. It's not a function that's taking the other material as an argument. It's instead a scope-marker. Here it's not even needed (and in fact in the interactive interpreter, it wouldn't even be needed when we invoke continuations, because of the default position it takes). But we're inserting it to be explicit and uniform.
252 Evaluating that gives us:
254 ((the . man) . (read . (the . (id . book))))
257 Now to pair that with an affective side-issue content, we'd instead define `damn` as:
259 (require racket/control) ; this tells Scheme to let us use shift and reset
260 (define damn (lambda () (shift k (cons (cons 'side-effect 'bad) (k 'id)))))
264 ((side-effect bad) ((the . man) . (read . (the . (id . book)))))
267 So that's the straightforward way of repairing the strategy we used in class, without using `print`. We also have to switch to using delimited continuations.
270 Ken Shan, however, pointed out a lovely way to get to the same end-point still using only undelimited continuations (`call/cc`).
273 ; An ordered pair whose first component is the assertion
274 ; operator, a unary function, and whose second component
275 ; is the meaning of "damn", a thunk.
278 (lambda () (k (cons (lambda (p) (cons (cons 'side-effect 'bad) p))
279 (lambda () 'id)))))))))
280 (let ((assert (car pragma)) ; this binds assert to the first element of the pair pragma
281 (damn (cdr pragma))) ; this binds damn to the second element of the pair pragma
282 (assert (cons (cons 'the 'student) (cons 'read (cons 'the (cons (damn) 'book)))))))
284 We won't do much to explain this. We'll just leave it for you to chew on.
290 ;(define damn (lambda () 'id))
291 (define damn (lambda () (call/cc (lambda (k)
293 (print "Something's bad")
297 (list (list 'the (list (damn) 'man))
299 (list 'the (list (damn) 'book))))
306 (require racket/control)
308 (define damn0 (lambda ()
311 (define damn1 (lambda ()
312 (cons '("side effect" bad)
315 (define damn2 (lambda () (shift k
316 (cons '("side effect" bad)
319 (define damn3 (lambda () (shift k
321 '("side effect" bad)))))
324 ; Now if we use damn0, our compositional semantics will work OK but
325 ; we don't yet have any affective contribution:
327 (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn0) 'boy)))
328 ; '("main content" i (like (the id boy)))
331 ; If we use damn1, we've added in the affective side-effect:
333 (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn1) 'boy)))
334 ; '("main content" i (like (the (("side effect" bad) . id) boy)))
336 ; However, the context (list 'the ... 'boy) is now being asked to operate
337 ; on an element (("side effect" bad) . id), and it may complain it doesn't
338 ; know what that is. It knows how to use 'id to get (list 'the 'id 'boy),
339 ; and how to use 'bad to get (list 'the 'bad 'boy), but we're supposed to
340 ; have something different here.
342 ; To get what we want we need to use (delimited) continuations:
343 (reset (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn2) 'boy))))
344 ; '(("side effect" bad) ("main content" i (like (the id boy))))
346 ; or to get the side effect at the end:
348 (reset (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn3) 'boy))))
349 ; '(("main content" i (like (the id boy))) ("side effect" bad))
351 ; If you're working in the interactive interpreter, the outermost "reset" here
352 ; is already in its default position, so it doesn't need to be explicitly
355 (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn2) 'boy)))
356 ; '(("side effect" bad) ("main content" i (like (the id boy))))
358 ; However, if you're executing this as a file, you would need to include explicit resets.
362 ; Instead of using reset/shift you could use an element like "print" in
363 ; building the side-effect, as we did in class. Here you wouldn't require an
364 ; explicit continuation, but as Chris said, that's because "print" already
365 ; represents an implicit continuation.
367 (define damn4 (lambda () (begin (print "bad") 'id)))
368 (list "main content" 'i (list 'like (list 'the (damn4) 'boy)))
369 ; "bad"'("main content" i (like (the id boy)))